Methods of Data Collection Essay Example for Free

Methods of Data Collection Essay Introduction: Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are qualitative methods for data collection. Bakhtadze (2012:82) ‘When you have decided on a topic, refined it and specified objectives, you start considering the ways of collecting the evidence you require. The initial question that guides you is: â€Å"What do I need to know to answer my research problem? Why do I need it?† After you have answered the question you start choosing the best ways of collecting information. Researchers next decide how they are going to collect their empirical research data. That is they decide what method of data collection (test, questionnaires, focus group, observation, interviews) they are going to use to physically obtain research data from their research participants.’ University of Wilconsin (2012)The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include: * Experiments/clinical trials.   * Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). * Obtaining relevant data from management information systems. * Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc). Wikipedia (2012) In statistics, survey methodology is the field that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political beliefs, are reported in the news media in democracies. Other types of survey are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g., marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology. A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behavior (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern. Survey methodology seeks to identify principles about the design, collection, processing, and analysis of surveys in connection to the cost and quality of survey estimates. It focuses on improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a fixed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientific field and a profession. Part of the task of a survey methodologist is making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it. The most important methodological challenges of a survey methodologist include making decisions on how to: * Identify and select potential sample members. * Contact sampled individuals and collect data from those who are hard to reach (or reluctant to respond). * Evaluate and test questions. * Select the mode for posing questions and collecting responses. * Train and supervise interviewers (if they are involved). * Check data files for accuracy and internal consistency. * Adjust survey estimates to correct for identified errors. Advantages * They are relatively easy to administer. * Can be developed in less time compared with other data-collection methods. * Can be cost-effective. * Few experts are required to develop a survey, which may increase the reliability of the survey data. * If conducted remotely, can reduce or obviate geographical dependence. * Useful in describing the characteristics of a large population assuming the sampling is valid. * Can be administered remotely via the Web, mobile devices, mail, e-mail, telephone, etc. * Efficient at collecting information from a large number of respondents. * Statistical techniques can be applied to the survey data to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance even when analyzing multiple variables. * Many questions can be asked about a given topic giving considerable flexibility to the analysis. * Support both between and within-subjects study designs. * A wide range of information can be collected (e.g., attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviour). * Because they are standardized, they are relatively free from several types of errors. Disadvantages The reliability of survey data may depend on the following: * Respondents motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond: * Respondents may not be motivated to give accurate answers. * Respondents may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. * Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given action. * Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables. * Self-selection bias: Although the individuals chosen to participate in surveys are often randomly sampled, errors due to non-response may exist ( Adà ©r et al. (2008:13) . That is, people who choose to respond on the survey may be different from those who do not respond, thus biasing the estimates. For example, polls or surveys that are conducted by calling a random sample of publicly available telephone numbers will not include the responses of people with unlisted telephone numbers, mobile (cell) phone numbers, people who are unable to answer the phone (e.g., because they normally sleep during the time of day the survey is conducted, because they are at work, etc.), people who do not answer calls from unknown or unfamiliar telephone numbers. Likewise, such a survey will include a disproportionate number of respondents who have traditional, land-line telephone service with listed phone numbers, and people who stay home much of the day and are much more likely to be available to participate in the survey (e.g., people who are unemployed, disabled, elderly, etc.). * Question design. Survey question answer-choices could lead to vague data sets because at times they are relative only to a personal abstract notion concerning strength of choice. For instance the choice moderately agree may mean different things to different subjects, and to anyone interpreting the data for correlation. Even yes or no answers are problematic because subjects may for instance put no if the choice only once is not available. Questionnaires Wikipedia (2012)A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opini on polls. Basic rules for questionnaire item construction * Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the population of interest. * Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give different answers. * Think of having an open answer category after a list of possible answers. * Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item. * Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives. * Do not make assumptions about the respondent. * Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels * Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation. * Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?). Questionnaire administration modes Main modes of questionnaire administration are: * Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally. * Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper. * Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer. * Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the ‘testees ‘estimated ability or trait. -Wikipedia. Org Observational study In epidemiology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. This is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group before the start of the treatment. Wikipedia (2012)Although, observational studies cannot be used as reliable sources to make statements of fact about the safety, efficacy, or effectiveness of a practice, they can still be of use for some other things: [T]hey can: 1) provide information on â€Å"real world† use and practice; 2) detect signals about the benefits and risks of[the] use [of practices] in the general population; 3) help formulate hypotheses to be tested in subsequent experiments; 4) provide part of the community-level data needed to design more informative pragmatic clinical trials; and 5) inform clinical practice.’ Bakhtadze (107:2012) Observation is watching behavioral patterns of people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. Quantitative Observation: Quantitative Observation involves the standardization of all observational procedures in order to obtain reliable research data. Qualitative Observation: Qualitative Observation involves observing all relevant phenomena and taking extensive field notes without specifying in advance exactly what is observed. Focus Groups Bakhtadze (106:2012) A focus group is a type of group interview in which a group moderator (working for the researcher) leads a discussion with a small group of individuals to examine how the group members think and feel about the topic. Purposes of Focus groups: 1. Obtaining general background information about a topic of interest; 2. Stimulating new ideas and creating concepts; 3. Generating impressions of products, programs, services, etc. 4. Learning how respondents talk about the phenomenon of interest; 5. Interpreting previously obtained qualitative results Summary A method of data collection is the procedure that a researcher uses to physically obtain research data from research participants. The method of data collection that is used in a research study is discussed in the method section of a research report. . Finally, the methods of data collection discussed in this paper work can be mixed by using the fundamental principle of mixed research to strengthen the evidence provided by a research study. References: Adà ¨r, H. J., Mellenbergh, G. J., Hand, D. J. (2008). Advising on research methods: A consultants companion. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. Bakhtadze, I., 2012.Course note on Research Methodology, Department of Education, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi-Georgia. World Bank, n.d: Data Collection Methods, 2012 viewed 28th of December 2012 http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm University of Wilconsin, n.d., Data Collection Methods, viewed 28th of December 2012 http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/researchmethods/data%20collection%20methods/data%20collection%20methods.htm Wikipedia, 2012, Questionnaire, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire Wikipedia, 2012, Survey Methodology, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey Wikipedia, 2012, Observational Study, viewed 28th 0f December 2012 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_study

Social Order Versus Personal F :: essays research papers

Social Order Versus Personal Fulfillment In the regal, and superficial high-class New York world presented in The Age of Innocence there is one particular, unchallenged rule of social order. This rule of complete social grace has been, instead of branded in stone, been impounded deeply in the minds of every generation raised under the canopy of money and fashion. The desire for etiquette is so overwhelming that it manages to suppress the simple human yearnings for personal fulfillment, otherwise enjoyed by those not imprisoned by clothes or cash. This conflict between society and human emotion is extremely prevalent. From the beginning of the tale, the description of old New York and its inhabitants seems rigid. The people are bent on their customs and beliefs. From the promptness of the Beaufort Ball, the inflexibility of decorum (including dress, meals, and room presentation), and all relationships, personal or business. The severity of the conformity makes the presence of radicals such as Ellen, Mrs. Mingott, and even Newland, fodder for subversive scandal and gossip. But these radicals are merely people who are unyielding to the harness of the rich. They have attempted to achieve their own satisfaction, however unsavory to the rest of the order. Ellen and Newland's personal feelings for each other are passionate, burning, and intensely primitive. The impact an unmasked relationship would have is extremely far-reaching. It would be devastating to Newland's wife, May. The waves would also be felt internationally by Ellen's husband in Poland. Newland and Ellen would be ostracized by the entire upper-rank, ruining not only their own lives, but others' as well. The complex set of rules and regulations that accompany living in such a society is analogous to a house of cards. If one card is disturbed, the entire thing may crash down. The effect of diversion is foreshadowed by the treachery of Julius Beaufort. He debauches the whole system and gains the scorn of all the other elitists. Further scandal is achieved by Mrs. Regina Beaufort when she abandons her husband in time of crisis and attempts to get the backing of her maiden family. The rules are broken and the aftermath felt far and wide. Similar catastrophe would follow if Newland and Ellen decide to fulfill their personal desire. They do realize the consequences and therefore remain reticent about their affair, and eventually gave up all hope and stay within the confines of

Becomin a Dentist Assistant

Dental assistants work closely with, and under the supervision of, dentists. (See the statement on dentists elsewhere in the Handbook. ) Assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and laboratory duties. Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform different clinical tasks. (See the statement on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook. ) Dental assistants sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment, prepare and lay out the instruments and materials required to treat each patient, and obtain patients’ dental records. Assistants make patients as comfortable as possible in the dental chair and prepare them for treatment. During dental procedures, assistants work alongside the dentist to provide assistance. They hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. They also instruct patients on postoperative and general oral health care. Dental assistants may prepare materials for impressions and restorations, take dental x rays, and process x-ray film as directed by a dentist. They also may remove sutures, apply topical anesthetics to gums or cavity-preventive agents to teeth, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. Some States are expanding dental assistants’ duties to include tasks such as coronal polishing and restorative dentistry functions for those assistants that meet specific training and experience requirements. Dental assistants with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Those with office duties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. Work environment. Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area usually is near the dental chair so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication and hand them to the dentist when needed. Dental assistants must wear gloves, masks, eyewear, and protective clothing to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Assistants also follow safety procedures to minimize the risks associated with the use of x-ray machines. About half of dental assistants have a 35- to 40-hour workweek. Most of the rest work part-time or have variable schedules. Depending on the hours of the dental office where they work, assistants may have to work on Saturdays or evenings. Some dental assistants hold multiple jobs by working at dental offices that are open on different days or scheduling their work at a second office around the hours they work at their primary office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement [About this section] Back to Top Back to Top Many assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs offered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, technical institutes, or the Armed Forces. Education and training. High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices. For those wishing to pursue further education, the Commission on Dental Accreditation within the American Dental Association (ADA) approved 269 dental-assisting training programs in 2006. Programs include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental-assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental offices. Most programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior colleges lead to an associate degree. All programs require a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require science or computer-related courses for admission. A number of private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but the Commission on Dental Accreditation does not accredit these programs. A large number of dental assistants learn through on-the-job training. In these situations, the employing dentist or other dental assistants in the dental office teach the new assistant dental terminology, the names of the instruments, how to perform daily duties, how to interact with patients, and other things necessary to help keep the dental office running smoothly. While some things can be picked up easily, it may be a few months before new dental assistants are completely knowledgeable about their duties and comfortable doing all of their tasks without assistance. A period of on-the-job training is often required even for those that have completed a dental-assisting program or have some previous experience. Different dentists may have their own styles of doing things that need to be learned before an assistant can be comfortable working with them. Office-specific information, such as where files are kept, will need to be learned at each new job. Also, as dental technology changes, dental assistants need to stay familiar with the tools and procedures that they will be using or helping dentists to use. On-the-job training is often sufficient to keep assistants up-to-date on these matters. Licensure. Most States regulate the duties that dental assistants are allowed to perform. Some States require licensure or registration, which may include passing a written or practical examination. There are a variety of schools offering courses—approximately 10 to 12 months in length—that meet their State’s requirements. Other States require dental assistants to complete State-approved education courses of 4 to 12 hours in length. Some States offer registration of other dental assisting credentials with little or no education required. Some States require continuing education to maintain licensure or registration. A few States allow dental assistants to perform any function delegated to them by the dentist. Individual States have adopted different standards for dental assistants who perform certain advanced duties. In some States, for example, dental assistants who perform radiological procedures must complete additional training. Completion of the Radiation Health and Safety examination offered by Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) meets the standards in more than 30 States. Some States require completion of a State-approved course in radiology as well. Certification and other qualifications. Certification is available through the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) and is recognized or required in more than 30 States. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifications and professional competence and may be an asset when one is seeking employment. Candidates may qualify to take the DANB certification examination by graduating from an ADA-accredited dental assisting education program or by having 2 years of full-time, or 4 years of part-time, experience as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have current certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. For annual recertification, individuals must earn continuing education credits. Other organizations offer registration, most often at the State level. Dental assistants must be a second pair of hands for a dentist; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, work well with others, and have good manual dexterity. Advancement. Without further education, advancement opportunities are limited. Some dental assistants become office managers, dental-assisting instructors, dental product sales representatives, or insurance claims processors for dental insurance companies. Others go back to school to become dental hygienists. For many, this entry-level occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a steppingstone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs. Employment [About this section] Back to Top Back to Top Dental assistants held about 280,000 jobs in 2006. Almost all jobs for dental assistants were in offices of dentists. A small number of jobs were in the Federal, State, and local governments or in offices of physicians. About 35 percent of dental assistants worked part time, sometimes in more than one dental office. Job Outlook [About this section] Back to Top Back to Top Employment is expected to increase much faster than average; job prospects are expected to be excellent. Employment change. Employment is expected to grow 29 percent from 2006 to 2016, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. In fact, dental assistants are expected to be among the fastest growing occupations over the 2006-16 projection period. Population growth, greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and older people, and an increased focus on preventative dental care for younger generations will fuel demand for dental services. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ assistants or have employed fewer, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one or more assistants. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. Job prospects. Job prospects for dental assistants should be excellent. In addition to job openings due to employment growth, numerous job openings will arise out of the need to replace assistants who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other reasons. Many opportunities for entry-level positions offer on-the-job training, but some dentists prefer to hire experienced assistants or those who have completed a dental-assisting program.

Creativity in secondary school Free Essay Example, 1500 words

An artist sees a way when there is an ‘aha! ’ moment (Jalongo, 1999). Secondary schools education should be based around this principle where the students figure things out for themselves through their ‘aha! ’ moment. Connecting the right and the left side of the brain can help learn better. The students should look for cues for getting inspirations from various processes, designs and objects in their surroundings. The focus should be on creating links between two apparently disconnected objects or ideas. Creativity does not exist in thin air, it stems from a seed (idea) or inspiration. Left and Right Brain Illustration (huffingtonpost. com, 2014) The link between different concepts is important in learning. When teachers ask students to critique arts the question about the social background and its history in which it grew comes into question (Capel, Leask, & Turner, 2005). The students connect one concept with another. In theory, giving secondary school children more choices can significantly enhance their creative abilities. An immediate impact would be that they will appear distinct from those children that are given a script for their decisions. Their ‘choices’ are limited. We will write a custom essay sample on Creativity in secondary school or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now To give them more options and the freedom to choose will encourage them to make more connections between apparently disconnected objects, and they overcome learning obstacles through creative process. Secondary school children need to have a physical environment that stimulates their creative juices. It is a little harder to reshape the physical environment and the teaching methodology for secondary school children compared to elementary school children Arts and creativity form a core concept in the basic development of children. They ‘play’ with building blocks and ‘figure out’ possibilities of constructing a structure. The teacher would ask them questions about the possibilities of using an object. In secondary schools the curriculum and the subjects are relatively rigid. Usually it is assumed to have narrow learning pattern. The process of arts and creativity needs to be encompassed within subjects such as science, technology, mathematics, engineering etc. Arts and creativity infused in such skill sets can help the students in the long run regarding their career and personal fulfilment. Teaching assistants or TAs can be helpful in bolstering creativity. They work alongside teachers assisting students on individual and group basis (Hughes, 2009). Singapore and Korea offer great education models where the focus is on creativity and critical thinking (Vincent-Lancrin, 2013).